### History of Jammu and Kashmir

                       #Ancient and Early Medieval Period#

Jammu and Kashmir is located in the northernmost region of the Indian subcontinent. Its history is deeply intertwined with its geography, religion, culture, and politics. Surrounded by the Himalayas and bordering Central Asia, the region has long been a crossroads of civilizations, trade routes, and empires. Its history encompasses ancient Hindu and Buddhist traditions, Islamic rule, Sikh and Dogra dominance, and the political conflicts of the present day.The early history of Kashmir is deeply rooted in Hindu civilization. Ancient texts such as the *Nilamata Purana* and the *Rajatarangini* (written by Kalhana in the 12th century) provide valuable insights into the region's early rulers and culture. Kashmir was initially a center of Hinduism and later became a significant center of Buddhism under the Mauryan emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE. Buddhist monasteries and learning centers flourished, attracting scholars from across Asia.By the early medieval period, Kashmir had developed a distinct cultural identity known as *Kashmir Shaivism*, a philosophical tradition that profoundly influenced Indian thought. Hindu dynasties such as the Karkota and Utpala ruled the region, fostering art, architecture, and literature. However, internal conflicts and invasions gradually weakened these kingdoms.

                #Arrival of Islam and Muslim Rule#The arrival of Islam in Kashmir in the 14th century marked a significant turning point in the region's history. Shah Mir established the first Muslim dynasty in 1339 CE, ushering in centuries of Islamic rule. Due to social, economic, and spiritual influences, many inhabitants gradually converted to Islam, although Hindu and Buddhist communities persisted.Among the most notable rulers were Sultan Sikandar, followed by Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin (Budshah), who reigned in the 15th century. Zain-ul-Abidin is remembered for his tolerant policies, promotion of education, encouragement of arts and crafts, and the reconstruction of Hindu temples. During his reign, Kashmir enjoyed peace and cultural prosperity.In the late 16th century, under Emperor Akbar, Kashmir came under the control of the Mughal Empire. The Mughals were captivated by the region's natural beauty and developed gardens and infrastructure. Mughal rule brought a degree of stability, but after their decline, in the mid-18th century, Kashmir fell into the hands of the Afghans. Afghan rule was harsh and exploitative, causing great suffering to the people.#### Sikh and Dogra Rule.In 1819, the Sikh Empire of Maharaja Ranjit Singh conquered Kashmir from the Afghans. Sikh rule improved security but imposed heavy taxes, particularly on the Muslim population. Following the decline of the Sikh Empire, British influence in the region increased after the First Anglo-Sikh War.In 1846, under the Treaty of Amritsar, the British sold Kashmir to Gulab Singh, the ruler of Jammu, for 7.5 million Nanakshahi rupees. This marked the beginning of Dogra rule under the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. The Dogra rulers governed various regions, including Jammu, the Kashmir Valley, Ladakh, and Gilgit-Baltistan.The Dogra government initiated reforms and infrastructure development, but political power remained concentrated in the hands of the elite. Economic hardship and a lack of representation fueled discontent, particularly among the Muslim population, who constituted the majority.

  #Movement Towards Independence and Partition#

By the early 20th century, political awareness grew in Jammu and Kashmir. Leaders like Sheikh Abdullah emerged, advocating for democratic rights and social reforms. The 1946 'Quit Kashmir' movement challenged the autocratic Dogra monarchy. In 1947, when British India was partitioned into India and Pakistan, the princely states were given the option to accede to either country. Maharaja Hari Singh initially decided to remain independent. However, in October 1947, tribal fighters from Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province invaded Kashmir. Facing military pressure, the Maharaja sought assistance from India and acceded to India by signing the Instrument of Accession.This led to the First Indo-Pakistani War, which resulted in a ceasefire in 1949 and the division of the region along the Line of Control (LoC). India retained approximately two-thirds of the former princely state, while the remainder came under Pakistan's control.#### Post-1947 Developments and Modern History

Jammu and Kashmir was granted special status under Article 370 of the Indian Constitution, giving it autonomy in internal affairs. For decades, the region has been plagued by political instability, governance disputes, and demands for self-determination.Since the late 1980s, the region has witnessed an armed insurgency, accompanied by violence, human rights concerns, and the displacement of Kashmiri Pandits from the valley. The relationship between India and Kashmir...